A brief history of toilets

Toilets in the Ancient World

In the ancient world people were capable of designing quite sophisticated toilets. Stone age farmers lived in a village at Skara Brae in the Orkney islands. Some of their stone huts had drains built under them and some houses had cubicles over the drains. They may have been inside toilets.
In Ancient Egypt rich people had proper bathrooms and toilets in their homes. Toilet seats were made of limestone. Poor people made do with a wooden stool with a hole in it. Underneath was a container filled with sand, which had to be emptied by hand. (If you were wealthy slaves did that!)
In the Indus Valley civilisation (c.2,600-1,900 BC) streets were built on a grid pattern and networks of sewers were dug under them. Toilets were flushed with water.
On the island of Crete the Minoan civilisation flourished from 2,000 to 1,600 BC. They too built drainage systems, which also took sewage. Toilets were flushed with water.
The Romans also built sewers to collect rainwater and sewage. (They even had a goddess of sewers called Cloacina!). Wealthy people had their own toilets but the Romans also built public lavatories. In them there was no privacy just stone seats next to one another without partitions of any kind. Despite the public lavatories many people still went in the street. After using the toilet people wiped their behinds with a sponge on a stick.
Toilets in the Middle Ages
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD sophisticated plumbing disappeared from Europe for centuries. In Saxon times toilets were simply pits in the ground with wooden seats over them. (For ordinary people that remained the case for centuries afterwards).
However in the Middle Ages monks built stone or wooden lavatories over rivers. At Portchester Castle in the 12th century monks built stone chutes leading to the sea. When the tide went in and out it would flush away the sewage.

Toilets at Portchester Castle
In castles the toilet was called a garderobe and it was simply a vertical shaft with a stone seat at the top. Some garderobes emptied into the moat. People hung their robes in the garderobe because they believed the smell would ward off moths. In time the word garderobe changed to wardrobe.
In the Middle Ages wealthy people might use rags to wipe their behinds. Ordinary people often used a plant called common mullein or woolly mullein.
Toilets in the Modern World
In 1596 Sir John Harrington invented a flushing lavatory with a cistern. However the idea failed to catch on. People continued to use chamber pots or cess pits, which were cleaned by men called gong farmers. (In the 16th century a toilet was called a jakes).
However in 1775 Alexander Cumming was granted a patent for a flushing lavatory. Joseph Brahmah made a better design in 1778.
Thomas Crapper did not invent the flushing toilet. That is a Historical Myth.
However flushing toilets were a luxury at first and they did not become common till the late 19th century. Also popular in the 19th century were earth closets. An earth closet was a box of granulated clay over a pan. When you pulled lever clay covered the contents of the pan. In rural areas flushing lavatories did not replace earth closets until the early 20th century.
In the early 19th century working class homes often did not have their own toilet and had to share one. Sometimes you had to queue to use it.
In the 19th century toilet pans were made of porcelain. They were usually decorated, embossed or painted with attractive colours. Seats were of wood and cisterns were often emptied by pulling a chain. At first toilet bowls were boxed in but the first pedestal toilet bowl was made in 1884. Meanwhile the vacant/engaged bolt for public toilets was patented in 1883.

A toilet bowl from Weald and Downland Museum
However inside toilets were a luxury in the 19th century. In the late 19th century working class homes almost always had outside lavatories. About 1900 some houses were built for skilled workers with bathrooms and inside toilets. However it was decades before inside toilets became universal.
There were public lavatories in the Middle Ages and the 16th century. For instance we know there was one over the River Fleet at London. However public lavatories were rare at that time. Often people went wherever they could. In 1547 people were forbidden to go in the courtyards of royal palaces so presumably it must have been a real nuisance.
The first modern public lavatory, with flushing toilets opened in London in 1852. Meanwhile although toilet paper was used in ancient China toilet paper only went on sale in the west in 1857. At first toilet paper was sold in sheets. It was first sold in rolls in 1928. Soft toilet paper went on sale in 1942. However after it was invented in the west toilet paper was a luxury. In the early 20th century many families used newspaper.
Our excellent online ccnp security and MCSE 2003 test training programs will lead you to success in the SCJP. We also offer latest 642-813 and 642-617 with 100% success guarantee.Toilets Today
Today in rich countries we take toilets for granted yet in poor countries millions of people do not have hygienic toilets.
Our word toilet is derived from the French word toilette, which means little cloth. In the 17th century it was a cloth cover for a dressing table, called a toilet table. If a woman was at her toilet it meant she was dressing and preparing her appearance. By the 19th century toilet room or toilet was a euphemism for a certain room.
Our word lavatory comes from the Latin lavare meaning to wash. In the 17th century a lavatory was a place for washing. Later it became a euphemism for a certain room.
On board a ship the toilets are called the heads. Originally they were just wooden boards with holes cut in them hanging over the sides of the ships. They were placed at the head of the ship.
On land there are many euphemisms for toilets. One is 'the smallest room in the house'. An old euphemism for going to the toilet was 'going to spend a penny' because public lavatories used to cost one penny to use.
Today many people in poor countries still do not have adequate sanitation. The World Toilet Organisation was formed in 2001 to improve toilets in the developing world.

A Queen of Napoleon's Court:

http://books.google.com/books/about/A_Queen_of_Napoleon_s_Court.html?id=9ZDxPQAACAAJ

The Life Story of Desiree Bernadotte Catherine Bearne 0 Reviews Kessinger Publishing, Jul 30, 2007 - 508 pages This scarce antiquarian book is included in our special Legacy  Reprint Series. In the interest of creating a more extensive selection  of rare historical book reprints, we have chosen to reproduce this title  even though it may possibly have occasional imperfections such as  missing and blurred pages, missing text, poor pictures, markings, dark backgrounds and other reproduction issues beyond our control.  Because this work is culturally important, we have made it available  as a part of our commitment to protecting, preserving and promoting  the world's literature.

BOOK DESCRIPTION

http://biblio.co.uk/books/488036381.html

London, T. Fisher Unwin, 1905. Cloth, frontispiece, illust., pp. xxiv, 498. Cornersbumped, spine ends frayed, covers worn, prelims. foxed, name on half-title, lower margin of first few pages waterstained, a good copy. Keywords: France French royalty Desiree Bernadotte biography

BOOK DETAILS

• A QUEEN OF NAPOLEON'S COURT. The Life-Story of Desiree Bernadotte by Bearne, Catherine
• Bookseller: Serendipity Books  (AU)
• Bookseller Inventory #: 90153
• Title: A QUEEN OF NAPOLEON'S COURT. The Life-Story of Desiree Bernadotte
• Author: Bearne, Catherine
• Binding: Hardcover
• Keywords: France French royalty Desiree Bernadotte biography

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Desiree' and Napoleon; Film on Emperor's Life Opens at the Roxy

---

November 18, 1954

By BOSLEY CROWTHER

A GREAT deal of handsome decoration and two talented and attractive stars have been put into the Cinemascope production of the historical romance "Désirée." The only essential missing is a story of any consequence.

For almost two hours there is paraded in measured paces on the Roxy's panel screen, where this picture opened last evening, a vast and varied display of famous figures and courtly behavior in the time of Napoleon. Most of the major stages in the Little Corporal's spectacular career are mentioned in conversation or covered in elegant scenes that flow as diary entries from the point of a feather-pen.

There is a stunning sequence, for instance, showing a party at the home of Mme. Tallien, wherein the rising Napoleon is first seen in the company of Josephine, There are whimsical scenes briefly tagging the transition through the directory. And there's a fine, full-scale tableau of the great general crowning himself Emperor of France.

This is a panoramic picture—panoramic in pictorial style and in the material it embraces — which is mainly a chronological review of a famous reign. What there is of personal drama in it is built wholly and very flimsily upon a wild assumption that there was an abiding affection in the heart of Napoleon for a woman whom he wanted to marry when he was a youthful general and then abandoned for the sake of his career.

There is an element of truth in this notion. Napoleon did love a girl named Désirée, whose sister was married to Napoleon's brother, Joseph. Désirée herself later was married to General Bernadotte and thus became Queen of Sweden when her husband was "adopted" as the successor to that nation's throne. But how much, if any, feeling Napoleon later had for her is a matter of pure speculation, attractive mainly to romantic minds.

Unfortunately for the impact of this picture, the speculating done by Daniel Taradash, inspired by a novel by Annemarie Selinko, is, if anything, a little too restrained. Mr. Taradash's script is quite positive in indicating that Napoleon loved the girl in the first flush of his ascendency. But then it permits the amorous passion to appear to die, and there is not much in this line to intrigue the viewer until the end of the film.

Then, out of a long series of tableaus and out of the passionless progression of Napoleon and the girl along separate ways—he to become the Emperor and a loveless husband and she to become Sweden's indifferent Queen—the script again brings them together for a wistful tête-à-tête. During it Désirée persuades him to surrender and to St. Helena, which is absurd.

The consequence is a static story, so far as the emotions of the individuals are concerned, and a strangely unrevealing presentation of two potentially exciting characters. Only twice in this lengthy progression does the great Napoleon emerge as anything but a beetle-browed buster and a usually pompous poseur. Once when, he is dancing briefly with the guarded Désirée and again when he is sadly telling her, during an unexpected midnight call, of his terrible retreat from Moscow does the glint of a human being appear. For the rest, Marlon Brando's Napoleon is just a fancy (and sometimes fatuous) facade.

The same must be said for Jean Simmons' performance as Désirée. It is a pretty but pointless demonstration of a hollow woman getting along without love. Between her and Michael Rennie, in the role of Bernadotte, there appears not a trace of genuine feeling to suggest a matrimonial bond, and certainly there is no sense of passion toward Napoleon.

The others in the cast are mostly robots—Merle Oberon as Josephine, Cameron Mitchell as Napoleon's brother, and John Hoyt as Talleyrand. They merely fill out the plushy décor of this Twentieth Century-Fox spectacle, which at times Henry Koster has directed as though it were a satire on suburbia. For the most part, however, he has made it what it is—just a colorful vehicle for a pseudo-Napoleonic outing, a streetcar named "Désirée."

DESIREE, screen play by Daniel Taradash, based on the novel by Annemarie Selinko; directed by Henry Koster; produced by Julian Blaustein for Twentieth Century-Fox. At the Roxy.
Napoleon . . . . . Marlon Brando
Desiree . . . . . Jean Simmons
Josephine . . . . . Merle Oberon
Bernadotte . . . . . Michael Rennie
Joseph Bonaparte . . . . . Cameron Mitchell
Julie . . . . . Elizabeth Sellars
Paulette . . . . . Charlotte Austin
Mme. Bonaparte . . . . . Cathleen Nesbitt
Marie . . . . . Evelyn Varden
Mme. Clary . . . . . Isobel Elsom
Talleyrand . . . . . John Hoyt
Despreaux . . . . . Alan Napier
Oscar . . . . . Nicolas Koster
Etienne . . . . . Richard Deacon
Queen Hedwig . . . . . Edith Evanson
Mme. Tallien . . . . . Carolyn Jones

10 Revolting Facts About the 18th Century

by Barry McComber | October 22, 2012

http://listverse.com/2012/10/22/10-revolting-facts-about-the-18th-century/

It is well known on Listverse that I love history; it may be lesser-known that the 18th century is my favorite period in time – followed shortly after by the Middle Ages. Many of our lists dealing with historic times tend to discuss the nice parts – not intentionally avoiding the bad – just lacking space on a list for both. This list looks at ten rather unfortunate parts of Western history in the 18th century.

10

Personal Hygeine

Today we place high value on personal hygiene but back in the day people could go from cradle to grave without ever immersing themselves in water. Many people believed that bathing was unhealthy and that soaking in water, especially hot water, would let disease enter the body. Even if you did decide to take a bath, you would not even have contemplated taking off your clothes – a habit that remained right through to the end of the 19th century!

9

Deodorant

Deodorant was not invented until the 1880s, so most people were entirely comfortable with smelling like a goat most of the time. The rich would try to hide this smell by dousing themselves in perfume. We all know that doesn’t work. While 9th century polymath Ziryab did introduce the idea of underarm deodorant to Moorish Iberia (parts of Spain, France, Portugal, and Gibraltar) the idea never caught on. It wasn’t until 1888 that the first commercially produced deodorant began taking the west by storm. It is still available today – the brand was “Mum.”

8

Grooming

Women did not groom their body hair. In the Western world, removal of body hair did not become common until the 1920s. Of course there are some nations (that shall not be named) who do have a reputation for their women still not grooming body hair. Enough said about that, I think!

7

Toilets

Homes stunk of urine and feces. There was no indoor plumbing; most people relieved themselves into a chamber pot, which could be left to sit, until someone decided to throw it out the nearest window. In later times these chamber pot visits were less frequent as outdoor lavatories were invented – but even in the Victorian era chamber pots had their place as a night time emergency loo.

6

Toilet Paper

Toilet paper wasn’t invented until the late 1800s, so you did your best with whatever was available. The rich might have had the luxury to wipe themselves with strips of linen. The poor used old rags, moss, leaves and good old trusty hand! Even the Ancient Romans fared better – they used cloth on a stick which was dipped in a bucket of water! Pictured above is a portable 18th century toilet.

5

Bed Bugs

Bed bug infestation was rampant. They were simply considered a normal part of life. Unfortunately these bed bugs were undoubtedly the cause of many illnesses spreading. They remained a constant problem until well into modern times. In the Victorian era, women were recommended to wipe all the beds down with kerosene to kill these unwanted guests.

4

Time of the Month

Women had few options when Mother Nature called once a month. Some would use a piece of cloth which would be reused several times. Rather unpleasant really, given that you had to dry them on the washing line with all your other smalls. Best not to look over the fence! Others simply used nothing and let gravity do its thing.

3

Dung, Dung, Dung

In larger urban areas, the streets smelled of a mixture of animal dung, human feces and rotting plant matter. If you ever wondered where the gentlemanly tradition of the man walking on the outside arose, look no further; of course, it was also in part to protect his “lady” from water splashes from passing carriages. When you next watch a movie where a man gallantly throws his cape across the ground for his lady to pass – remember: it may not be a puddle he is covering.

2

Dental Hygiene

Dental hygiene was little more than a toothpick and maybe wiping down your gums with a cloth. Women generally had worse dental hygiene than men due to vitamin loss from pregnancy. While this was true for the poor, Italian company Marvis began making their toothpaste in the early 1700s (they still make it today). But frankly the poor were probably more concerned with buying meat than fancy Italian toothpaste. It definitely wasn’t an “essential.”

1

Mercury

Everyone was infested with head and body lice. But never fear, they had an amazing cure for this: mercury! 18th century Europe had a love affair with mercury. They ate it, they rubbed it on their skin, and then they went batshit crazy and died. On the positive side – at least it killed the lice first!

Stockholm

I go to Sweden often.. In June of 2010, I was fortunate enough to spend two do-nothing days in Stockholm before attending a conference in Vaxjo. I took many photos. Using some of those photos, I decided to construct this webpage in order to entertain your vanity.

When I was there, it was two weeks before the Swedish royal wedding. Their crown princes was getting married, and many people were talking about the royal family. Kings or queens do not have much to do with physics these days, but the king of Sweden is somewhat special to physicists. He hands out Nobel certificates to exceptional physicists. If you are sufficiently young, and you do physics correctly, you may receive the Nobel certificate from this princess who will become the queen of Sweden when you are ready.

• Here is a photo of the royal family. (from a Swedish post card without copyright statements.) The young lady (far right) wearing a tiara is the crown princess. The princess has a brother, but she is the eldest child. According to the Swedish constitution, the first-born will continue the monarchy.

Two hundred years ago, Sweden was invaded from both east and west. Russia occupied the province of Finland, and the province of Norway was captured by Denmark. To make things wore, the king of Sweden did not have children who could continue his monarchy. He thus decided to adopt a talented young man who could manage military affairs. He looked at Napoleon's army and invited a brilliant general named Jean Baptieste Bernatatto to become the prince and eventually the king. He became King Charles XIV of Sweden.When the general came to Stockholm from France, he came with a French girl named Desiree. Desiree was Napoleon's childhood sweetheart in Corsica. After hearing Napoleon became great, Desiree went to Paris to marry him. But Napoleon was deeply in love with a widow named Josephine. Desiree became heartbroken, but was invited by Bernadotte go to Stockholm with him. She went and produced Bernadotte's children for the present Swedish dynasty.
Like Prince Charles of England, the crown princess of Sweden has many first names. I was very happy to note that one of her first names is Desiree.

When you go to Stockholm to pick up your Nobel certificate, you may need the following map and guide.

• Nobel Map. If you go to Stockholm to pick up your Nobel prize, you will need this map. This map contains four essential places you should go through.
• Grand Hotel Stockholm. You will be staying in this hotel. This hotel has its history.
  1. Another View of this Hotel (photo from public domain).
  2. One of the dining rooms. I was not allowed to take photos of the main lobby and other important places in this hotel. But I could use my camera in this lunch room getting ready for its opening at the noon.
  3. Sea food table for the lunch buffet.Pastry table.
  4. I dined there in 2005. The Swedish parliament building is seen through the window.
  5. When I dined there again in 2010, my table was served by a young professional. She majored in tourism and hospitality in her college.
• Concert Hall. You will pick up your certificate from the King of Sweden during the ceremony held in this concert hall. If you are young enough you will receive the award from the Queen.
  1. In 1963, Eugene Wigner received the Nobel prize in physics.
  2. This sculpture in front of the Building,means something, but I did not have enough time to study this aspect. Presumably, it means art, creativity, and peace. What else?
  3. Except the Nobel ceremony (one day a year), this Concert Hall's main function is to host musical events. When I dropped in, the usher was kind enough to walk with me to one of the doors of the concert hall while the maestro was conducting his symphony orchestra (seen from CCTV). We did not open the door.
  4. The interior of this building is not necessarily glamourous, but it has a very rich history. Many important people went through this stairway.
  5. PUB (in front of the Concert Hall) is one of the major department stores in Sweden. Actress Greta Garbo once worked here before she became famous.
• The City Hall. The Nobel Dinner and Gala Party are held here in December of every year. This building looks old, but it was constructed after World War I. It was designed to look old.
  1. The Nobel Dinner is taking at this lower lavel of the Gala Hall. When I was there in 2005, I met a group of Japanese tourists. I asked them who Japan's first Nobel winner was. They said "Yukawa Hideki San." I have a webpage dedicated to Yukawa.
  2. Golden Plaque of Alfred Nobel on the wall of this dining area.
  3. After the dinner, they walk through this stairway to the upper level for gala dancing.
  4. In 1963, thie group of people went through this dinner-dance process. The group consists of Eugene Wigner, his class mate at the Budapest high school, and their wives and daughters. Wigner's daughter is on his right.
  5. The upper level is for the gala dancing. Apparently, this space is used also for dining for non-Nobel events. When I was there in 2010, it was getting ready for a formal dining event.
  6. The Goddess of Lake Malaren is presiding over the event taking place in this area. She has large eyes to keep evil spirits away from this place.
  7. This City Hall is on the bank of Lake Malaren. I was there in 2005.
  8. The City Hall Interior is a collection of art works. There are many wall paintings like this.
  9. One of the ceilings is a inspired by Vikings ships.
  10. The City Hall's main function is to provide the administration for the city of Stockholm, but wedding receptions are held in this City Hall complex. I was an uninvited guest there.
• Nobel Museum in Old Town. This museum contains profiles of all Nobelists.
  1. Entrance to the Museum. I took this photo, but I did not go into the museum. I did not want to pay for the admission. About the people I am interested in, I should know more than this museum can tell.
  2. This Museum is located at the heart of the Old Town, rich in Swedish history. There are many beautiful buildings.
  3. The Royal Palace is in this area. Unlike the palace guards in other countries, the Swedish guards are allowed to talk to the people, and they speak English fluently. I asked man whether his rifle was loaded. He said "Yes," and his rifle is operational and he was ready to shoot if needed. I then asked what kind of rifle it was. He said it is a German Mauser of 1903.
  4. Women soldiers used to be exceptional until recently. I become happy when I see them walking like soldiers.
  5. Vikings Art. The history of the Old Town can be traced back to the Vikings era. This are could have been an important Vikings operational base.
• If you choose to receive a Nobel Peace Prize, you should go to Oslo (Norway) and stay at Oslo's Grand Hotel. All other Nobel events will take place in Norway's City Hall.
  1. Two City Hall Towers seen from the Oslo Bay.
  2. The Main Lobby of the City Hall where the award ceremony takes place on the 10th day of December every year.
  3. Photo of one Tourist.
  4. Another View of the Interior Walls.
  5. Floor of the main lobby.
  6. A view of the Oslo Harbor from the City Hall.
  7. Nobel Peace Center. This building contains a cafeteria, a souvenir shop, and an exhibition hall showing the contributions those Nobel winners made.
  8. Nobel Peace Prize Candidate. T-shirt for your children or grandchildren. I bought one for my grandson, and paid forty five US Dollars. Outrageous price, but people pay.
• Let us come back to Stockholm. I spent one of my two do-nothing days with these two Swedish ladies. They saw their father inWigner's class photo of 1920. He was Wigner's classmate at Budapesti Evangelikus Gimnazium (Budapest Lutheran High School). I maintain a comprehensive Wigner page.They wanted to talk about their father. His name was
  1. Gabor Kornel Tolnai. He was a very handsome man. Here is
  2. His portrait painted by their mother, who was a talented Swedish artist.
  3. Photo of Their parents. After high school, their father studied engineering and started showing his creativity. He was invited by a Swedish telephone company, and he provided many technical innovations for the company. This Swedish company is known as "Ericsson." He came to Stockholm from Budapest and married a Swedish girl who became their mother.
  4. In 1963, Eugene Wigner came to Sweden to receive his Nobel prize, and contacted their father. Wigner came with his wife and his daughter. Their parents had three daughters. They all went to the Nobel dinner and gala dancing. Let me brag about the following two photos of mine, with three of the young ladies appearing in this gala photo.
     • with Wigner's daughter in 2002. This photo was produced in Princeton.
     • with two of Tolnai's daughters in 2010. The City Hall of Stockhom is seen in the background.
  To be continued. Please come again.

Desiree: Napoleon’s First Love

http://www.christyenglish.com/2011/08/19/desiree-napoleons-first-love/

Friday, August 19th, 2011 | The Writing Life

When I was in high school, more years ago than I care to count, I had the pleasure of reading DESIREE by Annemarie Selinko. I loved this novel of Napoleon’s first love, a woman who lived to see the end of the Revolution and the fall of Napoleon’s empire. She went on to become Queen of Sweden in a twist too bizarre to be anything but true history. Fact is indeed stranger than fiction.

I am finishing off French Revolution Week here on my blog with a stroll into my own past. This novel left me with a sense of sorrow and of triumph, giving me insight into the character of a woman who truly lived in fascinating times. This novel was re-released last fall, so new readers can discover this journey into the past.

I am very happy to refer you now to the wonderful review of this novel posted by Lucy on her blog Enchanted by Josephine earlier this year. She is much more eloquent than I as she describes this novel, and how lovely it is.

http://enchantedbyjosephine.blogspot.com/2011/01/book-review-desiree-bestselling-novel.html

Tags: Desiree, Enchanted by Josephine, Josephine, Napoleon